Handbook of International Law and Diplomacy

General introduction 17
Prof. Dr. Ana María Salinas de Frías
Part I
Subjects of International Law
Lesson 1
The State
Prof. Dr. Joaquín Alcaide Fernández
1. INTRODUCTION 23
2. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE STATE BEFORE INTERNATIONAL LAW 25
2.1. Sovereign equality, independence and non-intervention 25
2.2. Specific situation of some States before international law 28
3. THE EMERGENCE OF NEW STATES 28
3.1. Constituent elements 29
3.2. Recognition of States 30
4. THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF STATES 33
4.1. Change of government, specifically in breach of constitutional order 33
4.2. The succession of States: treaties; property, archives and debts; natural persons and nationality; succession of States in respect of membership of international organizations 34
5. IMMUNITIES OF STATES 39
5.1. Immunities of States as such and their property 41
5.2. Immunities from jurisdiction and immunities from execution 42
Lesson 2
International Organizations and other subjects of International Law
Jr. Dr. Alejandro Sánchez Frías
1. INTRODUCTION 47
2. THE INTERNATIONAL SUBJECTIVITY OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 48
3. Categories of international organizations 50
4. Competences and responsibilities of international organizations 52
5. Privileges and immunities of international organizations 54
6. Structure and functioning of international organizations 56
6.1. Membership 56
6.2. Organs and decision-making procedures 58
7. Other subjects of International law 60
7.1. Peoples and self-determination 60
7.2. Legal persons 62
Lesson 3
Non-State Actors in International Law
Ambassador Bernardino León Gross
1. INTRODUCTION 65
2. INTERNATIONAL PERSONALITY 67
3. THE STATUS OF THE INDIVIDUAL AS A NONSTATE ACTOR IN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW 70
4. NON-STATE ACTORS IN IHL 74
5. TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS AND IL 77
6. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS 79
Lesson 4
The Individual Person in International Law
Prof. Dr. Ana María Salinas de Frías
1. THE EVOLVING SUBJECTIVITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERSON IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 81
2. INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 83
2.1. Universal protection of human rights 83
2.2. Regional protection of human rights 84
3. INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION AGAINST THE MOST SERIOUS CRIMES OF CONCERN TO THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY 86
3.1. Origin and evolution of the international criminal responsibility of the individual 86
3.2. The codification and classification of crimes against international peace and security 87
3.2.1. War crimes 88
3.2.2. Aggression, or the modern version of crimes against peace 89
3.2.3. Genocide 90
3.2.4. Crimes against humanity 93
3.3. The repression of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community 94
3.3.1. The principle of universal jurisdiction 94
3.3.2. International criminal tribunals 96
3.3.2.1. Ad hoc international criminal tribunals 97
3.3.2.2. Hybrid criminal courts 98
3.3.2.3. The International Criminal Court (ICC) 100
Part II
Sources of International Law
Lesson 5
Unilateral Acts
Jr. Dr. Ignacio Álvarez Arcá
1. Background 105
2. Definition and nature 106
3. Requirements 107
4. The vexed question of Revocation 109
5. Categories of unilateral acts 110
6. Estoppel and acquiescence 111
6.1. Estoppel 112
6.2. Acquiescence 113
Lesson 6
International Treaties
Jr. Dr. Ignacio Álvarez Arcá
1. Introduction 115
2. Treaty-making process 117
2.1. Negotiation, adoption and authentication of the text 117
2.2. The expression of the consent to be bound by a treaty 119
3. Reservations 121
3.1. Reservations and objections 124
4. Provisional application and coming into force of international treaties 126
4.1. Coming into force of international treaties 126
4.2. Provisional application of international treaties 127
5. Publication, deposit and register of international treaties 129
6. Amendment and modification of international treaties 129
7. Application and interpretation of international treaties 130
7.1. Application of international treaties 130
7.2. Interpretation of international treaties 132
8. Nullity, termination and suspension of international treaties 133
8.1. Nullity of international treaties 134
8.2. Termination and suspension 136
8.2.1. Termination 136
8.2.2. Suspension 138
8.3. Common procedure to be followed with respect to invalidity, termination, withdrawal from or suspension of the operation of a treaty 139
Lesson 7
Customary International Law and acts of International Organizations
Jr. Dr. Alejandro Sánchez Frías
1. Custom and International Law 141
2. International custom: concept and elements 143
2.1. The material element: general practice 143
2.2. The psychological element: opinio juris 147
3. Typology of international customary rules 150
4. Interplay between treaty and custom 151
5. Acts of International Organizations 152
Part III
The application of International Law
Lesson 8
Incorporation and Implementation of International Law Into Domestic Legal Systems
Prof. Dr. Ana María Salinas de Frías
1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND DOMESTIC LEGAL SYSTEMS 159
2. INCORPORATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW INTO DOMESTIC LEGAL SYSTEMS 161
2.1. International treaties 162
2.2. General international law 163
2.3. Legal acts adopted within international organizations 164
3. IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW BY DOMESTIC LEGAL SYSTEMS 166
3.1. International law hierarchy within domestic legal systems 166
3.2. Interpretation of international law provisions 168
3.3. Implementation of international law provisions 168
Lesson 9
International Responsibility of the State
Prof. Dr. Ana María Salinas de Frías
1. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE STATE FOR WRONGFUL ACTS 171
1.1. Introduction 171
1.2. The wrongful act 172
1.2.1. The subjective element or attribution to the State 172
1.2.2. The objective element or wrongful act 174
1.3. Circumstances precluding wrongfulness 176
1.4. Content of the responsibility, means of enforcement and reparation 179
2. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR ACTIVITIES NOT PROHIBITED BY INTERNATIONAL LAW 181
3. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 183
4. SELF-HELP MEASURES AND INTERNATIONAL SANCTIONS 184
4.1. Self-help measures 184
4.2. International sanctions 185
Lesson 10
Diplomatic Protection
Prof. Dr. Ana María Salinas de Frías
1. DEFINITION, DELIMITATION OF SIMILAR CONCEPTS AND EVOLUTION 189
2. THE LEGAL NATURE OF DIPLOMATIC PROTECTION 193
3. THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE EXERCISE OF DIPLOMATIC PROTECTION THROUGH INTERNATIONAL JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS 196
3.1. The traditional requirements for diplomatic protection 197
3.1.1. Exhaustion of local remedies 197
3.1.2. The nationality of the injured individual 200
3.1.3. Nationality of legal persons 203
3.1.4. The lack or non-application of nationality: stateless persons and refugees 204
3.1.5. Substitution of the bond of nationality: functional protection 205
3.2. Other possible requirements: proper conduct of the individual and the waiver of diplomatic protection 206
3.2.1. The controversial requirement of proper conduct on the part of the individual 206
3.2.2. The controversial concept of waiver by the individual 209
Part IV
Functions of contemporary International Law
Lesson 11
International Law and Diplomacy. The Organs of the Relations Between States
Ambassador Bernardino León Gross
1. CONVERGENCE BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND DIPLOMACY 215
2. RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES: REGULATION AND ORGANS 220
2.1. The Central Organs 220
2.2.1. The Head of State 221
2.2.2. The Head of Government 221
2.2.3. The Minister of Foreign Affairs 222
2.3. Immunities of the Head of State, Head of Government and Ministers of Foreign Affairs 223
3. DIPLOMATIC LAW 227
3.1. The 1961 Vienna Convention 228
3.1.1. The members of the Mission 229
3.1.2. Privileges, immunities and inviolabilities 230
3.2. Crisis management in Diplomatic Law 233
3.3. Ad hoc Diplomacy 236
3.4. Consular relations 238
3.5. Relations between international organisations 240
4. FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR INTERNATIONAL LAW AND DIPLOMACY 241
Lesson 12
Personal Competences of the State
Prof. Dr. Ángel Sánchez Legido
1. General remarks 245
2. Nationality and International Law 246
3. Legal regime of foreigners 248
4. International Immigration Law and global challenges 251
5. Enhanced regimes: refugee, asylum, and stateless people regimes 254
5.1. Refugee and asylum regimes 254
5.2. Stateless people regime 257
5.3. Internal displaced people 259
Lesson 13
The Law of the Seas
Prof. Dr. Joaquín Alcaide Fernández
1. MARITIME AREAS 261
2. INTERNATIONAL REGULATION: THE LAW OF THE SEAS 267
3. THE COMPETENCES OF THE STATE OVER MARITIME AREAS 272
3.1. Internal waters 273
3.2. Territorial sea 275
3.3. Straits and archipelagic waters 277
3.4. Contiguous zone 279
3.5. Exclusive Economic Zone 280
3.6. Continental shelf 283
Lesson 14
The Protection of the Environment and Internationally Protected Spaces
Jr. Dr. Ignacio Álvarez Arcá
1. International environmental law: origin and nature 287
1.1. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 288
1.2. From the Rio Conference until today 290
2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 292
2.1. Environmental principles 293
2.2. Treaty-making process and nature of MEA 295
3. Spaces out of the scope of the State jurisdiction 298
3.1. Origin and evolution 298
3.2. The protection of the North and South poles 299
3.3. High Seas 302
3.4. The International Seabed and Ocean Area 304
3.5. The airspace 306
3.6. The outer space 307
Part V
The maintenance of international peace and security
Lesson 15
The Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
Prof. Dr. Eric Canal Forgues Alter
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT TECHNIQUES 314
2. Preventive Settlement 315
2.1. Control mechanisms 316
2.2. Monitoring bodies 316
3. DIPLOMATIC SETTLEMENT 317
3.1. Negotiations 317
3.2. Inquiry 319
3.3. Good offices, mediation and conciliation 320
4. JURISDICTIONAL SETTLEMENT 321
4.1. General characteristics 321
4.2. Inter-State Arbitration 322
4.2.1. Procedure 323
4.2.2. Effect of the award 324
4.3. Inter-State Judicial Settlement 325
4.3.1. Organisation of the Court 326
4.3.2. Competence of the Court 327
4.3.2.1. Contentious Jurisdiction 327
4.3.2.2. Advisory jurisdiction 329
4.3.3. Incidental jurisdiction 331
4.3.3.1. Preliminary objections 331
4.3.3.2. Provisional measures 332
4.3.3.3. Intervention 333
4.3.4. Effects of decisions 333
5. SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES WITHIN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 336
5.1. The Charter of the United Nations 336
5.2. Regional Organizations 337
Lesson 16
The Control of the use of force
Jr. Dr. Alejandro Sánchez Frías
1. The prohibition of the use of force 339
1.1. Historical development 339
1.2. Nature, scope and effects of the prohibition of the use of force 340
1.3. Exceptions to the prohibition of the use of force 342
2. The UN system of collective security 345
3. International Humanitarian Law 348
3.1. Concept and basic principles 348
3.2. Categories of armed conflicts 349
3.2.1. International armed conflicts 349
3.2.2. Non-international armed conflicts 351
3.3. The status of combatant and prisoner of war 352
Part VI
LANDMARK CASES
Introduction
International Law and diplomacy
Prof. Dr. Eric Canal Forgues Alter
1. Approaching the concept of diplomacy 358
1.1. Law, politics and diplomacy 359
1.2. Interactions with international institutions 360
1.3. Use of force 362
2. Approaching the concept of international law 362
2.1. International Law as a ‘marginal enterprise’ in diplomatic practice 363
2.2. International law as an effective tool of diplomacy 364
2.3. Peace, justice and diplomacy 367
2.3.1. Resolving conflicts 367
2.3.2. Ensuring accountability 368
Case I
The Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Teheran (UNITED STATES OF AMERICA V. IRAN)
Ambassador Bernardino León Gross
1. INTRODUCTION 371
2. THE FACTS 373
3. THE PHASE OF PROVISIONAL MEASURES 375
4. JURISDICTION 381
5. THE JUDGEMENT 383
Case II
Reparation For Injuries Sustained in the Service of the United Nations
Prof. Dr. Eric Canal Forgues Alter
1. Advisory Opinion of 11 April 1949 391
1.1. International legal personality of the United Nations 393
1.2. Capacity to bring an international claim in respect of damage caused to the Organization 393
1.3. Capacity to bring an international claim in respect of damage caused to the victim 394
Case III
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (NICARAGUA V. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)
Prof. Dr. Eric Canal Forgues Alter
1. Judgments of 26 November 1984 (Jurisdiction and Admissibility) and 27 June 1986 (Merits) 397
1.1. Introduction 397
1.2. Jurisdiction and Admissibility 398
1.3. Merits 401
1.4. Impact 404